Keywords Glossary

Somebody asked for a glossary, well here's all I have. There's so many bio words out there so obviously I can't include everything, so anything not here, just you know, Google it. :P

Keywords

Active transport: The process in which energy is used to move the particles of a substance against a concentration gradient, that is, from a region where they are of lower concentration to a region where they are of higher concentration.

Adaptation: Any characteristic of an organism that improves its chances of surviving in its environment.

Aerobic respiration: Respiration with oxygen. It’s the oxidation of food substances in the presence of oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products.

AIDS: An abbreviation for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

Alleles: Different forms of a gene which occupy the same relative positions on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

Anaerobic respiration: Respiration without oxygen. It’s the oxidation of food substances in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration.

Anaesthetics: Drugs that make the body unable to feel pain.

Arteries: Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart.

Artificial selection: A method used by human beings to produce plants and animals with desired qualities.

Asexual reproduction: The process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent, without the fusion of gametes.

Assimilation: The process whereby some of the absorbed food materials are converted into new protoplasm or used to provide energy.

Axon: A nerve fibre that transmits impulses away from the cell body of a neurone.

Bioaccumulation: The process by which substances collect in all parts or part of a living organism.

Breathing: The process that brings about an exchange of gases between an organism and its environment.

Capillaries: Microscopic thin-walled (one cell thick) blood vessels which carry blood from a small artery (arteriole) to a small vein (venule).

Codominance: A condition where both alleles express themselves in a hybrid, as they are both either dominant or recessive to one another. (Roughly equal expression.)

Community: Populations of organisms living together and interacting with one another under the same environmental conditions.

Conservation: The protection and preservation of natural resources of the environment.

Consumers: Organisms which obtain their energy by feeding on other organisms.

Continuous variation: Traits with phenotypes ranging from one extreme to the other. It is brought about by combined (or additive) effects of many genes. It is affected by environmental conditions, e.g. intelligence, height and skin colour in human beings.

Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from one plant to the stigma of a flower in another plant of the same species.

Decomposers: Saprotrophs and detritivores. Organisms which obtain energy by breaking down dead organisms, faeces and excretory products.

Dendron: A nerve fibre that transmits impulses towards the cell body of a neurone.

Desertification: The destruction of land leading to desert-like conditions.

Detoxification: The process of converting harmful substances into harmless ones in the body.

Differentiation: The process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific function.

Diffusion: The net movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, that is, down a concentration gradient.

Digestion: The process by which large food molecules are broken down into small, soluble and diffusible molecules that can be absorbed by the body cells.

Diploid: Cells that contain the full number of chromosomes.

Discontinuous variation: Traits that show limited variation in their phenotypes which are easily distinguishable. It is usually controlled by only one or a few genes. It is not affected by the environment. E.g. detached earlobes-it’s either yes or no.

Dominant: A form of a gene that is expressed and masks the recessive gene. It gives the same phenotype in both homozygous and heterozygous conditions as it expresses itself.

Ecology: The study of the relationships between living organisms and the natural environment.

Ecosystem: An ecological system formed by the interaction of living organisms (biotic) and their non-living (abiotic) environments.

Egestion: The removal of undigested matter from the body. Egestion would be like pooing-you’re egesting faeces which are basically undigested food. [Different to excretion! See excretion.]

Endocrine glands: Ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Enzymes: Biological catalysts made of protein. They alter the rate of (mostly catalyse) chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed at the end of the reactions.

Eutrophication: The profuse growth and multiplication of algae and green plants as a result of the enrichment of nutrients in the water. Often leads to depletion of oxygen levels.

Excretion: The process by which metabolic waste products and toxic materials are removed from the body of an organism. E.g. sweating, sweat is a metabolic waste product. [Different to egestion! See egestion.]

Fertilisation: The process by which the male gamete fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote.

Focusing/accommodation: The adjustment of the lens of the eye so that clear images of objects at different distances are formed on the retina.

Food chain: A series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food.

Food web: Two or more food chains interlinked together.

Gamete: A reproductive cell containing the haploid number of chromosomes.

Gene: A hereditary factor found on a particular locus in a chromosome. It controls a particular characteristic and codes for a specific protein.

Genetic engineering: A technique used to transfer genes from one organism to another.

Genotype: The combination of genes in an individual.

Gland: A cell, tissue or an organ that secretes chemical substances.

Habitat: The place where an organism lives.

Haploid: Cells that contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cells which produced them.

Heterozygous: A condition where you have different alleles for a particular trait. E.g. if B codes for brown eyes (dominant allele is always upper case) and the recessive allele is b (always the lower case of the dominant alleles’ letter), then a person with a Bb genotype for eye colour is heterozygous dominant, so will have brown eyes.

Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Homologous pairs: Chromosomes which have the same genes, shape and length. 

Homozygous: Having identical alleles for a particular trait. E.g. BB-homozygous dominant, or bb-homozygous recessive.

Hormone: A chemical substance produced in minute quantities by an endocrine gland. It is transported in the bloodstream to target organ(s) where it exerts its effects.

Irritability/sensitivity: The ability of an organism to respond to a stimulus.

Meiosis: A form of cell division such that the daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. –will be haploid, e.g. to form sex cells/gametes (Chromosomes are in the nucleus.)

Mitosis: Cell division such that the daughter cell produced contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. –will be diploid, e.g. to form somatic (body) cells

Mutation: The sudden or spontaneous change in gene structure or a chromosome, or even the chromosome number, and may be inheritable.

Nerve: A collection of nerve fibres.

Nerve fibre: A long cytoplasmic extension of the cell body of a neurone. It serves to transmit impulses.

Neurone: A nerve cell.

Nutrition: The intake of food and the processes that convert food substances into living matter.

Osmoregulation: The control of water and solute levels in the blood to maintain a constant water potential in the body. Basically to maintain blood water levels.

Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules from a solution of higher water potential to a solution of lower water potential, through a partially permeable membrane, i.e. down a water potential gradient.  Or, from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, through a partially permeable membrane, i.e. down a concentration gradient.

Oxygen debt: The amount of oxygen required to oxidize the lactic acid produced in muscles during anaerobic respiration and convert it into harmless substances.

Partially/selectively permeable membrane: A membrane that allows selected substances to pass through.

Peristalsis: The rhythmic wave-like contractions of the walls of the gut.

Phagocytosis: The process of engulfing and ingesting foreign particles, such as bacteria, by phagocytes such as the white blood cells.

Phenotype: The physically expressed trait in an individual, e.g. outward appearances such as height and eye colour.

Photosynthesis: The process in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is transformed into chemical energy.

Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma.

Pollution: The addition of substances to the environment that damage it, making it unfit for life.

Population: A group of organisms of the same species living together in the same habitat.

Producers: Organisms which convert energy from the sun, or light energy, into chemical energy and store it as food during photosynthesis. They are the start of the food chain.

Recessive:  A form of a gene that expresses itself only in the homozygous condition. E.g. Bb, it won’t be expressed because the dominant ‘B’ allele masks it and is expressed instead. But in ‘bb’, this is homozygous recessive, so it will be expressed.

Reducing sugars: Sugars that produce a red precipitate when boiled with Benedict’s solution. E.g. glucose, maltose, fructose, lactose.

Reflex action: An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control.

Reflex arc: The shortest pathway by which impulses travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex action.

Respiration: The oxidation of food substances with the release of energy in living cells.

Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther the stigma of the same flower or of a different flower on the same plant.

Sexual reproduction: The process involving the fusion of two gametes to form a zygote, resulting in the production of genetically dissimilar offspring-as in there will be variation.

Species: A group of similar organisms. Organisms within a species can breed. They produce healthy offspring that are able to grow, develop and reproduce normally.

Synapse: A junction between two neurones.

Tissue: A group of similar cells which work together to perform a specific function.

Tissue respiration: The process in living cells by which food substances are oxidized with energy released for the vital activities of the cells. Basically: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ à 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)

Translocation: The transport of manufactured food substances such as sugar and amino acids in plants (in phloem.)

Transpiration: The loss of water vapour from aerial parts of a plant, especially through the stomata of the leaves.

Transpirational pull: The suction force caused by transpiration that is the main factor causing water movement up the xylem.

Turgor pressure: The pressure exerted outwards on the cell wall due to the water in the cell-hence the cell becomes turgid.

Variation: The differences that can be observed within a species.

Veins: Blood vessels which carry blood towards the heart.

Voluntary action: An action that is under the control of the will, requires thinking so it’s obviously slower than involuntary/reflex actions. 

Movement of substances into and out of cells

Specification:

2.12 recall simple definitions of diffusion, osmosis and active transport

2.13 understand that movement of substances into and out of cells can be by diffusion, osmosis and active transport

2.15 understand the factors that affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells to include the effects of surface area to volume ratio, temperature and concentration gradient

2.16 describe simple experiments on diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems

Specification:

2.12 recall simple definitions of diffusion, osmosis and active transport 

Diffusion: this is the net movement of fluid molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. i.e down a concentration gradient. The steeper the gradient, as in the bigger the difference in concentration, the faster diffusion will occur. Examples include if you spray perfume in a corner of the room, it will slowly spread out until you can smell it from the opposite side of the room. This is because the particles move randomly and continuously collide with each other until they spread out evenly. In our body, diffusion occurs when oxygen from the alveolus in the lungs diffuses into the red blood cells which have a lower concentration of oxygen, since it transports it to body cells and 'gives it away'.

Osmosis: this is like diffusion, except it involves water molecules. So again, water molecules move via osmosis from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, through a partially permeable membrane. In our body cells, the cell surface membrane is partially permeable, its function is to control what is allowed to enter the cell.

Sometimes you read a definition on osmosis regarding water potential. And this confuses a lot of people. People think that it's from a region of low water potential to high water potential, since a region without much water should have water going to it right? Wrong.

Water potential is a measure of the tendency of water to move from one place to another. So a place without much water would have a low water potential, it's not going anywhere. So the definition is still the same, just switch 'concentration' for 'water potential'.

So osmosis is the movement of water molecules from high to low water potential i.e. down a water potential gradient, through a partially permeable membrane.

So a high concentration of water would be a dilute salt solution, and a low concentration of water would be a concentrated salt solution.

Likewise, a dilute salt solution has a higher water potential, and a concentrated salt solution has a lower water potential.

Active transport: This is the active uptake of molecules against a concentration gradient using ATP (adenosine triphosphate) or if you don't think you can remember this, just say using energy. Against a concentration gradient just means from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration-unlike diffusion/osmosis. Carrier proteins transport the molecules from one side of the membrane to the other side .

This occurs in root hair cells when they actively uptake mineral ions from the soil even though there is a greater concentration in the root hair cells.

2.13 understand that movement of substances into and out of cells can be by diffusion, osmosis and active transport

Diffusion: e.g. oxygen diffusing into red blood cells, or carbon dioxide diffusing into leaves for photosynthesis

Osmosis: e.g. when water diffuses into plant cells it makes the cells turgid, which provides the plant with support so it can stand upright. If water diffuses out of the cell, it becomes flaccid and wilts. The cell is turgid because the water entering the cell makes the cytoplasm and the vacuole push against the cell wall, exerting turgor pressure. In animal cells, there isn't a cell wall so if too much water enters the cell, it may burst-called lysis. 

Active transport: e.g. root hair cells actively uptaking mineral ions such as magnesium for chlorophyll. In humans, in our kidneys, salts are actively uptaken into the blood.

2.15 understand the factors that affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells to include the effects of surface area to volume ratio, temperature and concentration gradient

Surface area to volume ratio: root hair cells have a high surface area to volume ratio, so it increases the rate of diffusion/osmosis.

Temperature: temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles, so diffusion occurs quicker.

Concentration gradient: The steeper it is, i.e. the greater the difference in concentration between 2 regions, the faster the rate of diffusion/osmosis.

2.16 describe simple experiments on diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems

BlogThis!

Biological molecules

Specification:

2.5 recall the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils)

2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up of smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar; protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerol

2.7 describe the tests for glucose and starch

2.8 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions

2.9 understand how the functioning of enzymes can be affected by changes in temperatures

2.11 describe how to carry out simple controlled experiments to illustrate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature

2.5 recall the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils)

Carbs and lipids: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Protein:

• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Sulphur
• Phosphorous
• Nitrogen 

2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up of smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar; protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerol 

Simple sugars e.g. glucose, maltose, galactose Starch, glycogen

Amino acids Protein

Fatty acids + glycerol Lipids

      2.7 describe the tests for glucose and starch

Test for glucose

Benedict's solution-blue solution containing copper (II) sulphate.

Reducing sugars such as glucose, maltose, fructose and lactose can reduce the copper (II) in Benedict's solution to copper (I).

-produce a brick-red precipitate of copper (I) oxide when boiled with Benedict's solution.

Benedict's test:

1. Add 2 cm³ of Benedict's solution to 2 cm³ of glucose solution in a test tube and shake the mixture. Leave the test tube in a beaker of boiling water for five minutes.
2. As a control experiment, repeat step 1 using 2 cm³ of distilled water in place of glucose solution.
3. What do you observe after five minutes for both experiments? Is glucose a reducing sugar?
4. Yes, we already know that, but this test just proves it. The colour change seen is the blue Benedict's solution turning brick-red or orange-red precipitate.
   Test for starch
   Iodine test:
   Starch can be detected by the iodine test. A few drops of iodine solution added to any substance containing starch will produce a blue-black colour.
5. Add a few drops of iodine solution to a piece of potato on a white tile.
6. What do you observe?
   Plants store glucose in the form of starch. For example, starch is abundant in vegetable such as potato and tapioca.

2.8 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions

Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being used up/chemically altered. They lower activation energy-which is the energy needed to start a chemical reaction.

2.9 understand how the functioning of enzymes can be affected by changes in temperatures

High temperatures denature enzymes so they do not function anymore.

To explain this in more detail:

The chains of amino acids are coiled/folded up to give the protein a three-dimensional shape. The coils are held in place by weak bonds (hydrogen bonds).

An increase in temperature increases vibrations in the atoms of the enzyme. At high temperatures (Above 65°C for many human proteins), the vibrations are so violent that they break the hydrogen bonds in the enzyme, causing it to lose its shape.

When the active site changes shape, the substrate

2.11 describe how to carry out simple controlled experiments to illustrate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature

http://askmichellebiology.blogspot.com/2012/04/effect-of-temperature-on-amylase.html

GM Food

5.15 evaluate the potential for using genetically modified plants to improve food production (illustrated by plants with improved resistance to pests)

Genetically modifying plants can have some advantages and disadvantages. Despite the fact that the world produces enough food to feed the whole world many times over, some people are still starving. Others are suffering from malnutrition and many are hungry. Genetic modification has great potential; it can allow certain crops to survive in harsher conditions so that for example, people in Africa can grow crops despite the harsh conditions there. Scientists can even genetically modify foods so that they are more nutritious, for instance they genetically modified rice plants to produce 'Golden Rice' which has a higher vitamin A content. So here you see that GM foods can help address certain nutrient deficiencies too. Not all of a crop planted will be harvested; a percentage will be lost to disease, some to pests, others to weeds. So GM plants can be designed to have resistance to not only harsher conditions, but to pests too. This way crop yield is increased. But of course, there are disadvantages too. I'll just list a few of each, and then include a table for some benefits of genetic engineering applications to society.

Advantages, GM crops:

• Need fewer chemical sprays
• Could give bigger yields
• Could grow in harsher conditions
• Could result in cheaper food (if there were higher crop yields, supplies increase and with the same demand, prices are lowered)
• Could be more nutritious

Adv. -Research into the genetic modification of plants hopes to provide (or provides already) plants with:

• Increased resistance to a range of pests
• Resistance to pathogens so they don't contract diseases
• Increased heat and drought tolerance
• Increased salt tolerance
• A better balance of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and minerals-more nutritious crop plants

http://www.rff.org/Publications/WPC/Pages/The-Benefits-of-Genetically-Modified-Crops-and-the-Costs-of-Inefficient-Regulation.aspx


Disadvantages:

• Accidental transfer of new genes to other wild plants-unpredictable
• GM crops could reduce biodiversity
• The new proteins in GM crops could cause allergies
• GM seeds are expensive, but the costs of production are lower as sometimes less water is needed, or expensive chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides are not needed if the crops are resistant towards diseases and pests and weeds

Applications of genetic engineering	Benefits to society
Low-cost production of medicines	Genetic engineering of important drugs such as human insulin has dramatically reduced the cost of these medicines. This makes it more affordable and therefore more accessible to people who need them, so they can be treated.
Production of crops that grow in extreme conditions (e.g. high-salt environments)	Examples of such crops include: Drough-resistant crops; Salt-tolerant crops; and Crops that make more efficient use of nitrogen and other nutrients. This allows farmers to grow crops even when the soil conditions are not suitable for cultivating most crops.
Development of: Crops that produce toxins that kill insect pests; and  Pesticide-resistant crops	The use of costly pesticides that may damage the environment is reduced. For example, the Bt gene from t Cell Structure a) Levels of Organisation 2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems b) Cell Structure 2.2 recognise cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole 2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole 2.4 describe the differences between plant and animal cells Animal cell A cell membrane is like a sieve, it controls what goes in and out of the cell.  The cytoplasm is where the chemical reactions take place, the mitochondria in the cytoplasm is where respiration takes place to release energy. The cytoplasm also contains enzymes that control the chemical reactions.  The nucleus is like the 'brain' of the cell, it controls the cell, telling it what to do. It also contains DNA which is important when the cell reproduces.  Plant cell Plant cells have extra features: They have a cell wall, this is made of cellulose. It gives the cell shape and structure and provides support. It also means the cell can't burst, it becomes turgid when it is full of water. (The cell walls are actually impermeable to water, which is why they have small gaps in them called plasmodesmata which allow water to enter via osmosis..) They have chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll-the green pigment that allows it to absorb light energy and convert it to chemical energy during photosynthesis. Plants are autotrophs-they can make their own food.  Plant cells have a permanent vacuole that contains cell sap, it provides support. It is also basically a storage and removes waste, and provides/maintains the cell structure.  Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell Nucleus Yes Yes Cytoplasm Yes Yes Cell Membrane Yes Yes Mitochondria Yes BlogThis! Wednesday, 4 April 2012 Nature and Variety The specification for section 1 pretty much says it all, I didn't really add anything:  a) Characteristics of living organisms 1.1 recall that living organisms share the following basic characteristics:  they require nutrition they respire they excrete their waste they respond to their surroundings they move they control their internal conditions they reproduce they grow and develop b) Variety of living organisms 1.2 describe the common features shared by organisms within the following main groups, plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protoctists and viruses, and for each group describe examples and their features as follows (details of life cycle and economic importance are not required). Plants: These are multicellular organisms; they contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; they have cellulose cell walls; and they store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose. Examples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (for example maize) and a herbaceous legume (for example peas or beans).  Animals: These are multicellular organisms; they do not have chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; they usually have nervous coordination and are able to move from one place to another; they often store carbohydrates as glycogen. Examples include mammals (for example humans) and insects (for example housefly and mosquito). Fungi: These are organisms that are not able to carry out photosynthesis; their body is usually organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structures called hyphae, which contain many nuclei; some examples are single-celled; they have cell walls made of chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion of digestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of the organic products; this is known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may store carbohydrates as glycogen. Examples include Mucor, which has the typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast which is single-celled.  Bacteria: These are microscopic single-celled organisms; they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA; some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organisms. Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus, a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus, a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia.  Protoctists: These are microscopic single-celled organisms. Some, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. A pathogenic example is Plasmodium, responsible for causing malaria.  Viruses: These are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of living organism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA.  Examples include tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenza virus that causes 'flu' and the HIV virus that causes AIDS.  1.3 Recall the term 'pathogen' and know that pathogens may be fungi, bacteria, protoctists or viruses.  Subscribe to: Posts (Atom) Community Service JSFA CAS (a football team I help manage for CAS) Sekolah Bisa (A school CAS students built and manage) About Me Hi I'm Michelle. I've finished IGCSEs and the IB but I hope these blogs help people with their IGCSEs anyway!! :) Note: That's why these blogs are no longer updated, what's there is all I had time for back then so I'm sorry that they're not fully complete with the whole syllabus and all. Hope what's there helps anyway.. :) I do actually have more notes than is posted, and these can be purchased by buying my IGCSE Notes sets. Contact me at: michelle.lim205@gmail.com Total Pageviews Content: Sections Humans (2) Reproduction (2) Section 1: The nature and variety of living organisms (1) Section 2: Structures and functions in living organisms (7) Section 3: Reproduction and inheritance (5) Section 5: Use of biological resources (1) Blog Archive ►  2014 (1) ►  May (1) ▼  2012 (16) ►  August (2) ►  May (2) ▼  April (6) Keywords Glossary Movement of substances into and out of cells Biological molecules GM Food Cell Structure Nature and Variety ►  March (6) Hi! Note: This blog will no longer be updated, but I will read emails. So, I've finished IGCSEs but I'm leaving my blogs open in hopes that they help people. It would be great if you can tick a box at the bottom of each post to show me what you think, and please feel free to leave comments! A Google+1 below would be awesome too. Thank you so much, hope they help. :) Btw, I did take information out of textbooks. But I've reworded what I can. About Me Michelle Lim Hi I'm Michelle, I've finished the IB (May 2014) and was a Biological Natural Sciences undergraduate student at the University of Cambridge (Class of 2017). You can contact me via michelle.lim205@gmail.com :) View my complete profile Is this blog useful? Ethereal theme. Theme images by konradlew. Powered by Blogger.